NATO EXPANSION

NATO EXPANSION

North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty signed in 1949. The members of NATO have a mutual response of defense to attack by an external party. They maintain that an attack on any one member is an attack on the whole group of nations. at the beginning The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization's goal was, "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down" (Reynolds, 1994,pp. 13).

Mearsheimers study on offensive realism as cited in (Sundevall, 2011, pp. 2) assumes that “…states are rational power maximizes…always trying to gain more power at the expense of others. Sundevall goes ahead to state that, “NATO’s …expansion (according to Mearsheimers) seems to be the opposite of rational state behavior” and that “states do not …expand alliances when they are threatened” (2011, pp. 2)

The NATO expansion eastwards has led Russia to reassess strategic imperatives in their western boarders because of the mutual distrust resulting from the new alliance formed between the former enemies during the cold war. The countries view the security of one member country as a threat to the others. The expansion has led to a politico-military response between the former states which   formed the Soviet Union. The response main aims are defense and security cooperation between the states (Black, 2000).

The main problem is the perception of NATO by Russia and Belarus as a potential enemy thus the need for the republics defenses to protect themselves from western approaches. The presidents of Belarus have even mooted a planned desire to turn the alliance with Russia into a powerful deterrent to NATO activities. Russia and Belarus are closely monitoring the surety issues that will result form the proposed NATO expansion. The two countries are planning to have a joint security organization to tackle the new security challenges that will be posed by the eastern NATO expansion. They also plan to determine their sphere of influence while at the same time strengthening this sphere (Black, 2000)

Black (2000) further states that although Russia has tried to come to terms with the eastern expansion of NATO, her partner Belarus has adopted a more rigid stand of no expansion, leaving it in a situation of waning relationship with the west. Belarus has often accused NATO and the United States of harboring plans to invade it. NATO has thought of improving its relationship with Russia but not with Belarus because of their poor human rights record and the allegations that they sell weapons to states that support terrorism. Russia has also been accused by the other NATO members of harboring imperial ambitions (Barany, 2003).

The opposition to NATO expansion arises fro issues of security thus the military cooperation between the two states which will eventually lead to a new geopolitical map of Eastern Europe. Russia views Belarus as the necessary entry point to the eastern block of Europe thus an important partner in the military strategies of Russia. In addition to that, it provides direct access to central Europe necessary to exert Russia’s influence in the region which mainly relies on NATO for its security. Thus Belarus is a very strategic partner in the security plans of Russia (Barany, 2003)

According to Duignan (2000), Russia’s has reached agreements with Belarus to the use of their military infrastructure after Russia lost significant military bases in the Baltic States. The two countries have held training programs together aimed at countering any attacks by NATO on the two states. (Black 2000) outlines that the two countries even have a weapon procurement program underway all aimed at the Belarus-Russia military doctrine. All this cooperation’s are done in secrecy and with little government transparency. Because of the high levels of new security threats, the manipulation of information is in itself a strategy that the two nations have used to their advantage.

Russia’s main objection to the NATO expansion is the disappearance of the defensive wall provided by the USSR following the collapse of the Soviet Union. This led to the exposure of Russia to the western powers which include the U.S. and other strong NATO members from Europe. The NATO expansion led to Russia’s rush to build strong security alliances. That’s where Belarus fitted in because the too needed a close military cooperation to boost their national security. Russia viewed the expanding NATO as infringing on their western security space, an area where they reigned supreme before. Belarus importance to the Russia’s cause is her geopolitical orientation. It plays an important role in the establishment of east-West cooperation. Thus the NATO expansion has turned the nation into an important military and political center (Duignan, 2000).

Russia has also been accused of planning nuclear countermeasures in reaction to countries that intend to join the NATO. They have threatened to deploy nuclear weapons in Belarus should any central European state join NATO. Belarusian president in a speech on the eve of victory day in 1996 said that they could not sit back and watch as NATO encroaches upon their boarders. The president further accused NATO o double standards by demonizing the Russia-Belarus cooperation while singing praises at the NATO expansion (Duignan, 2000).

There were also concerns why NATO supported military cooperation with former Warsaw Pact states while the eastern states were against it. In 1997 the leaders of Russia and Belarus issued a statement on their opposition to NATO expansion; which they cited as the key reason why they were pooling resources for military action and also forging links in foreign relations (Bebler, 1999).

Russia further maintained that military structures and cooperation were inevitable due to the planned North East Corps base in Szczecin, a move which was viewed as advancement with weapons to the boarders of Russia. Further in 1998 after the entry of Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary into NATO, the cooperation was strengthened specifically on the fronts of efforts to establish military installations. NATO expansion according to critics failed to convincingly give the reasons why it considered the expansion plans. After the collapse of communism in central and Eastern Europe, NATO had lost a chunk of its collective purpose of defense (Bebler, 1999).

Germany and U.S have stood out as the two countries pushing hardest for the NATO expansion. The motivations of the two counties for the enlargement were different. German’s quest for the admission of Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary in her commitments to further her influence in central Europe. Germany also viewed the expansion as an opportunity to end the long running German-Polish conflicts and also to advance German’s economic interests in Central Europe. The enlargement was also viewed as part of the democratization process of the three countries and to also enhance German’s security in the Central and Eastern Europe (Kaplan, 1999).

The U.S. main objective for the support of NATO expansion was so that the United States could be anchored in Europe by securing the transatlantic dimension. The United States saw the addition of the three members to the NATO fold as an increased market for their weapons trade which had significantly gone down in the periods after the collapse of communism (Bebler, 1999).

The solution to the problem faced by NATO expansion would be to accord respect for Russia’s interests and also the need for collective European security system. An all inclusive policy for security had been attempted before. The policy aimed at economic modernization and integration with Western Europe to contain the problem of insecurity in Russia dominated Western Europe. The new alliance would be striving for defense. The policy of not building new zones of regional stability was reinforced by the existence of armament treaties between the enlarged states. The above approach would lead to the elimination of the fears that Russia have long held about NATO expansion (Kaplan , 1999).

REFERENCES

Barany, Z. D. (2003).The future of NATO expansion: four case studies. Cambridge University Press.

Black, L. (2000) Russia Faces NATO Expansion: Bearing Gifts or Bearing Arms? Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers

Bebler, A.A. (1999). The Challenge of NATO Enlargement. Westport, Conn.:Praeger

Duignan, P (2000).NATO; its Past, Present and the Future. Hoover Institution press publication

Kaplan, L.S. (1999). The Long Entanglement: NATO’s First Fifty Years. Westport,

Conn.: Praeger

Sundevall, O (2011). Masters thesis: Testing Offensive Realism on NATO expansion in Europe. Uppsala University, spring.

Reynolds D. (1994). The origins of the Cold War in Europe; International perspectives, Yale University Press.

Green Politics in Europe

Green Politics in Europe

Green politics is the conception of an ecologically sustainable society which began in Europe. It embraces environmental protection and conservation, liberation of the masses and democracy at the grassroots and ecological capitalism or green economics. The green politics is premised on the value that the indigenous people give to the environment. The paper examines how the various environmental issues prevailing have shaped the political discourse in Europe.

Yearley (1991, pp. 121-123) argues that the forces shaping the success of green politics are ozone layer deletion, threat of species extinction, energy policies and the problems posed by pollution. The European dream is closely linked with green politics in that it stresses sustainable development, quality of life and interdependence. The more communities a person has access to, the more options a person has for leaving a meaningful life.

Adherence to the precautionary principle has also been a key word in the cycle of green politics. The term precautionary principle was first coined in Rio declaration on Convention of Biological Diversity. The declaration stated that “where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific knowledge should no be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat”. The declaration stresses the need for prevention of environmental damage rather than remedying the effects on the environment

            Changes to energy policy aimed at arresting the looming climate change. Imposing tariffs on fossil fuels and the diffusion of new technologies for instance those that deal in renewable power sources have become a central issue in political agendas. In Germany, there have been increased calls for the use of technologies such as wind turbines and solar cells. This political arrangement has very significant positive impact on the environment by reduction of pollution (Nordhaus, 1979, pp. 47-49).

Restriction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) according to Paarlberg (2010, pp. 114-115) has been a major political policy area in Europe. Although there is the general acceptance that the GMO technology has improved the quality and reliability of the world’s food supply, there are major concerns as to the harm that the technology will have a significant harm on the people through the impacts on the environment, health and the reigning economic orders. There have been general public concerns in Europe, which have sometimes evolved into political movements against GM crops and the acceptance of the GM foods is at an all time low.

According to Irving, Harrison & Rayner (2005, pp. 45-65), the effects that genetically engineered organisms  has on the environment include the spread of transgene, potentials for pleiotropic effects and the possibility of the GM crops becoming weeds thereby increasing the weed burden that the farmers already grapple with. There is also the fear that the crops can invade natural habitats thereby interfering with the biodiversity. Restriction on the use of the technology has been advocated for by green parties since it can create long term problems such as crops the production of crops that are resistant to pesticides and also promote environmentally harmful farming

Due to extinction threats that the valuable ecological zones in the world face, there have been increasing calls for the protection of eco-regions. The areas that have the greatest amounts of biodiversity should be earmarked for protection. This follows the notion that environmentalists should strive to achieve a situation where all habitats and ecosystem types are represented within regional conservation frameworks. The representation approach can be used in a variety of situations from single habitats extending from just one watershed to those that are vast as to cover a whole continent. The focus is on the preservation of ecological processes and ecosystems (Olson & Dinerstei, 1998, pp. 67-78).

Ethical consumerism is also one of the pillars of green politics which is also called “democracy through the wallet”. The consumers do not buy anything that has the potential to harm the flora and fauna. Consumers have become a target for green campaigns because of the potential threats that products such as Ozone hole and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) aerosols posed to consumers. Consumers also put pressure which led to the early phase out of ozone depleting gases from fridges and freezers.  Animal rights movements have also featured greatly in the green politic of ethical consumerism. In 1989, a spokesperson for Avon announced that they would no longer use animals to test cosmetics as a result of the consumer boycott that resulted from their use of live animals to test cosmetics (Irving, Harrison & Rayner, 2005).

The new thinking in urban growth calls for people to live think as citizens of a global community while effecting the changes in their localities. This local based environmental activism is new and was only popularize by the problems that arose as a result of haphazard development of cities without regards to any planning standards. There is increased pollution in the cities and loss of flora and fauna due to the unprecedented population growth resulting from the lack of planning. In desperation to change the existing patterns of land use, groups of citizens and environmentalists have come together to support new urbanism (Katz, 1994, pp. ii-viii).

Green politics is also opposed to nuclear power by encouraging nuclear power phase outs for example in Sweden. The Sweden’s social Democratic Party was unseated because of their pro nuclear power policies with the incoming government being voted in on the platform in cuts in the use of nuclear energy .The call for reduction in nuclear power stems from the problems that nuclear energy poses for instance gradual industrialization of rural areas and the resultant concentration of economic activities. These two scenarios can eventually led to environmental degradation of the rural areas undergoing the sudden changes because of the need to clear more land for the developments. Tight nuclear regulation was possible in France due to the demand by the authorities for standardization of reactor designs and construction. In Germany, the antinuclear crusaders used the courts to appeal against nuclear policies of the government (Nordhaus, 1979, pp. 45-51)

 According to OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (2008, 358) groups opposed to use of nuclear energy stated nuclear technology is the epitome of democracy’s failure in the recent history. On top of the risks that nuclear poses to the environment for instance the Chernobyl accident which proved that the effects of nuclear accidents can extend national boundaries. There is also the general feeling among the public that nuclear technologies are prone to misuse. There have been calls by politicians, activists and scientists to transform nuclear energy regulation. The resistance by the people in 1970’s to the federal atomic promotions led to the reappearance of populist revolts against the Federal government which was perceived to be undemocratic. Due to the nuclear accident in Three Mile Island, many states prohibited nuclear plants. Later citizen activists and politicians getting support from a huge public antipathy resisted the development of nuclear products (Wellock, 1998; Nelkin & Pollak, 1980, pp. 27-32)

The concept of green economy came to be conceived as a result of climate change, increased globalization and the financial crisis. The decline in the supply of oil for the mainly oil dependent nations threatens the very tenets of the nationhood and therefore is a wake up call for people to use the limited resources in the most efficient way (Cato, 2009, pp. 2-5). Due to the political concerns of widening inequalities between the rich and the poor, there are concerns about how the economic situations have propelled them. Public opinion is driving green economics into the political debate thus leading to the development of policies which recognize the importance of wise use of resources bearing in mind the limits of the planet to provide for its inhabitants. Green economics calls for the reverence of the planet to avert such extreme consequences such as climate change and desertification. Moreover, it also calls for increase concerns not only for the human species but for the intricate ecology and the varied species (Cato, 2009, pp. 109-112).

Bibliography

Cato, M.S. 2009. Green economics: an introduction to theory, policy and practice. London; Sterling: Earthscan,

Irving, S., Harrison, R., and Rayner, M. 2005. Ethical Consumerism - Democracy through the Wallet. Journal of research for consumers, 15(3), pp. 45-78.

Katz, P. 1994. The new urbanism: Towards architecture of community. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Nelkin, D.  and Pollak, M. 1980.The Atom Besieged Extraparlimentary ;Dissent in France and Germany. MIT Press

Nordhaus, W. D. 1979 The Efficient Use of Energy Resources .Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.

OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. 2008. Nuclear energy outlook. Paris: Nuclear Energy Agency, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, cop.

Olson. M. and Dinerstein, E. 1998. A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions Conservation Biology. The Global 200, 12(3) pp. 23-36.

Wellock, T. R. 1998. Critical masses: opposition to nuclear power in California, 1958-1978 Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press

Paarlberg, R. L. 2010. Food politics: what everyone needs to know. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

Yearley, S. 1991. The green case: sociology of environmental issues, arguments and politics. Harper Collins; London

FEMINISM

FEMINISM

            Feminism theory states that men and women should be equal politically, socially and economically. It results from the recognition and critique of the male dominance and is aimed at changing it. The goals of feminism are to demonstrate the importance of women and how history has often made them to be subordinate to men. This analysis is what is needed according to the feminists to bring about gender equality. Feminist theory offers a perspective for understanding human behavior in the social environment by centering women and issues that women face in contemporary society. Feminism reflects “a world view that values women and that confronts systematic injustices based on gender” (Chinn & Wheeler, 1985, 74-77). A feminist lens asks us to see individuals, groups, family, and organizations in their social, political, economic, ethnic, and cultural contexts.

            Feminists all hold it that the inequalities that exist between the different sexes should not be accepted in the society. Understanding of the inequalities should be enhanced so that they can be reduced in the short run and ultimately done away with. Women have sometimes used the legal system to help them assert the fact that they are equal to men (Okin and Mansbridge, 1994). Okin and Mansbridge  further state that the view that women are subordinate to men was first brought into the political discourse by Aristotle who maintained that god created both plants and animals for man’s subsistence. According to them, Aristotle went further to argue that man in the head of the family hierarchy just as in the Greek family and this is the most natural of associations. A further argument by Aristotle that man is the only animal that holds reason among all the animals and that man’s main concern is his happiness thus the happiness of all the others are in the periphery of his thinking. The paper seeks to expound on the theory of feminism in family life education. Later in the paper, the application of the theory in practice will be dealt with and examples of articles of feminism in practice facilities in family life education, the complications of applying the feminist theory in practice in life education. At the tail end of the essay, an opinion will be given on the different ways to prevent the feminist issue in practice facilities.

            The feminism theory was started as a platform to demand for the complete equal treatment of the sexes. Its main aim was for the emancipation of the women folk from the perceived injustices and inequalities that were being perpetrated against them. The early women feminists initially intended to accomplish the goal of equality by the use of “sex antagonism”. However, opponents of the theory stated that the equal treatment of men and women could not be the solution to the sex problem; they viewed the acts of the feminists as those aimed at fueling the evil that they purported to fight against (Moyan, 1912). The first group of women to speak out about the discrimination against them did so in their religious gatherings. This arose as a result of the practice where parents would send daughters whom they thought had dishonored the family to the convent. To the women, this was a form of imprisonment. According to Walters (2005), by the 16^th century, more women had joined into the fray but were still using religion as a platform to voice their concerns

            There are different types of feminism. The first is cultural feminism which states that women have special differences fro m men and as such the women should be celebrated. This has been the reasoning behind such arguments that women should be given leadership positions because they are gentle and would solve most of the world problems without any attempts at war. Secondly, ecofeminism which believes that the man’s rule that stresses the need to control women and the environment is bad for both as it can lead to environmental degradation. Finally, there is gender feminism that argues that for the equality between the sexes to be achieved, the women must be given some special privileges (Colker, 1991).

            Feminists have been at the heart of the call for the expansion of the definition of the family so that teachings about the family become more tolerant and inclusive of the different changes that the sexes have undergone. The major changes in the family such as the new marriage arrangements, the changing face of intimate relationships, increased gender equality, economic emancipation and the freedom of reproduction by women have all been at the center of the feminists concerns due to the ongoing economic and social changes in the family, mostly the changing status of women (Walters, 2005). Feminists have argued that the traditional roles of women coupled with the economic exploitation that the women were exposed to have a very dangerous effect on the health and the well being of the women.

            A feminists approach to family life education provides a framework through which the structure and the processes of the contemporary life can be investigated. There is increased exposure of the tensions that exist in the family for instance those resulting from oppressions as a result of the gender, class, age and sexual orientation of a person. Feminism views the women in the course of family education as activists in the change process. Increased understanding of women and their experiences thus invalidating the notion that the women’s life is inextricably connected with the family’s. Feminism analyses the existing gender imbalances and how change can be brought about

            The feminists view the teaching of family life as a political process, thus they challenge the educators to be as objective as practically possible in the course of doing their work. The environment where the teaching takes place should be neutral since the learners are like blank books that are there to be filled with information. Feminism theory has attempted to tackle this seemingly harmless issue in its quest to achieve the goals of equality between men and women.

            Allen (1992) states that feminism theory calls for a paradigm shift in the thought about families. They stress that the view about the family should reflect the contemporary issues in the family for instance families that are headed by single mothers. The notion of the traditional nuclear family, they argue seems to ignore the differences in power between men and women and that its aim is to reinforce the long held position of male dominance. A shift in people’s thinking is the only way of laying foundation for healthy, nurturing and stable family interactions in the current century.

            The death of the traditional family has also featured greatly in the feminism education of the life in the family. During the postindustrial years, changes such as rapidly increasing inflation rates, shrinking idle class, increasing cost of home ownership and the rising unemployment rates have all dealt a blow to the traditional family. The family structure that has emerged has drawn largely on the array of cultural, economic and political ideologies to keep up with the new generational challenges, burdens and opportunities. There has been an increase in adult sexual relationships without necessarily marriage (Allen, 1992). This new framework, does not give any family framework priority over another form. There should be equal recognition of lesbian couple who get a child through insemination just as couples who cohabitate should be given the same rights and recognition.

            The traditional marriage according to the feminists exposes women to some unrealistic expectations. The women are viewed as care givers and they should always strive to appease the men and that the work of the man takes precedence over everything else. This view about women can sometimes lead women to abandon their careers to be good wives, but against their will. They women can not make substantial decisions about critical issues that affect their lives (Allen, 1992)

            Feminism also commits to new professional accountability standard for the family life educators. The information that the educators give should not be outdated but instead be as valid and comprehensive as possible. The gap in understanding the world should be bridged by the use of both qualitative and quantitative research and also the use of learner’s experiences to decipher the new knowledge that is being presented to them. The theory and practice is often integrated by feminists to enable them understand and makes important decisions about the data that they have been presented with. The feminists are always practical in their teaching about family life. By not only focusing on the talking and reading, the learners get to understand more since they see the process. This can be achieved by increasing the learner’s sense of consciousness to the issues that makes part of the society to be disadvantaged. This is an important step towards the empowerment of that group of people (Okin, 1989)

            According to Colker (1991), Feminism stresses personal authenticity since it promotes personal and institutional change through lobbies for change in both the existing social and political order. There is increased exposure of people to the politics of gender by bringing to the fore those inequalities that are brought about by marriage. Okin (1989) further argues that the purpose of this is to address the limitations imposed against women and to bring about meaningful change.

            Control of the number of children that a woman can have is also one of the areas where feminists have a great concern. The argument that for a woman, the  number of children they have can either allow them to pursue other carriers or completely immobilize them and make them permanently stay at home to take care of the children. Women have often resorted to delaying their first child births and also having fewer numbers of children. Some women even end their reproductive years as they pursue their careers and other commitments. Complete sexual education therefore helps in laying the foundation for gender equality.

            Finally, the feminists advocate for educational involvement of learners. Here, the students are given chances to participate in programs which are related to family. The students can also engage in internships so that they can experience feminism first hand. The students can also work with teachers in solving problems that affect the society and attempt to solve the problems.

            However, there are complications in the application of the feminist theory in practice in family life education. First, there is the almost universal acceptance of the family as it currently exists. The attempts by the theorists to make people accept other family structures such as lesbian unions, mother only as normal will take a great deal of time to be fully conceptualized. Another issue is that some of the women have come to accept their subordination to men. The contention with the women place in the society has negated the fight for equality of the sexes. There is also the acceptance by women of lower pay as compared to their male counterparts. Women workers are paid about 70% of the salary of men in America on average. There is also the general acceptance by members of the family that the father is the head and such he is the supreme in the family.

            Women’s economic dependency has always led to them to be victims of abuse by their husbands or other male partners (Global Fund for Women Report, 1992). The man can sexually assault the wife, but the wife can not do anything about it because of complete or high dependence on the man for their daily subsistence. There are also biases in the gender hierarchy. According to Okin, the family is the core of gender injustice.

            Finally, religion has played a great role in complicating the use of feminist theory in family life education. According to the Bible, Eve was created as a subordinate to Adam. The historical happenings in the bible also are in the support of male dominance. As in the case with the Paul’s epistle to Corinthians, where he urged the men not to allow the women to come to the places of worship. Since then the women have been put on the sidelines of major happenings in the life of Christians.

            To prevent the feminist issue in practice facilities, a number of issues can be taken into consideration. The use of sex as a bargaining tool should be scrapped from use as it amounts to intimidation and can lead to such happenings as divorce which can shake the very tenets of family life. The notion that all men take advantage of women is misplaced. Some men have always come out to support the women in their quest to be equal with the women. The feminist’s treatment of sex and family has not gelled well with the people who trust the traditional setting of the family where there is the mother, father and the children. Instead the advocates for the theory should concentrate their energies in tackling the societal conditions which created the problem of inequality.

            In conclusion, feminism is essential in enacting change in family life education. The diversity that has been seen in the contemporary family is a sharp contrast to the traditional family composition and structure. Family life education using the theories of feminism can help strengthen the contemporary family life. The theory helps in inculcating the virtues such as equality and the full participation of both women and men in the activities of the society. People who are involved in family life education should renew their commitments to the ideals and beliefs that they set out for. There is also the need for both the educators and their students to embrace political activities that brings real change in terms of the equality of the sexes in the family.

References

Allen, K.R. (1992). Starting a revolution in family life education: a feminist’s vision. Family Relations, vol. 41,378-384

Chinn, P.L., & Wheeler, C.E. (1985). Feminism and nursing: Can nursing afford to remain aloof from the women’s movement? Nursing Outlook, 33(2), 74-77.

Colker, R (1991). Feminism, sexuality and authenticity. New York: Routledge.

Global Fund for Women Report (1992) .Ending Violence Against Women: A Resource Guide, Menlo Park, CA: Shaler Adams Foundation.

Moyan, W. C. (1912). Feminism. Classic Reprint Series. Sturgis and Walton co.  Retrieved on 4^th august 2011 from www.forgottenbooks.org.

Okin, S.M. (1989). Justice, Gender and the Family. New York basic

Okin, S. M. & Mansbridge, J. J. (1994) .Feminism. Aldershot, England; Brookfield, Vt., USA: E. Elgar.

Walters, M. (2005). Feminism: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.