Australian History

1.0 Summary
Australia formulated and put into effect the White Australia Policy in the year 1901. As obviously implicated by such an action, the newly independent Australian country was very keen on its efforts of ensuring that the nation’s populace remained predominantly, if not completely, whites of a European descent. Despite the fact that few scholars have ventured into this very interesting discovery, the past of the Australian nation is perceived as one filled with heavy racial connotations. Australian nationalism has therefore been based on the foundations of race and to be able to grasp this knowledge efficiently, it is crucial that the role of race in the formation of the Australian nation be revisited. The concept of race or whiteness emerged from the colonial days when Australia was still under the subjugation of the British. To be able to appreciate the consequence of race in the formation of the Australian nation it therefore becomes necessary to first of all trace the history of the nation and how it came to be under the subjugation of the British (Lyons and Arnold, 2001).
According to Fitzgerald (2007), the ‘White’ and ‘British’ identities were shaped in such a manner that they dictated the relations between the different cultures and races of people in the British protectorates. The occurrence of sexual relations between people of different races, a practice which was very predominant in the colonial regimes, brought about the issue of ‘half-castes’ who were perceived as an abomination by many at the time; half-castes were individuals of mixed races who were perceived to be the undesirable evidence and outcome of the adulteration of a race as ‘pure’ as the European whites.

According to Clarke (2002), many of the investigations and researches that have been conducted on the issue of whiteness and race have their genesis in the United States of America. The systems of race and whiteness continue to exist even in the 21st century despite the disapproving attitude that many possess towards them. Despite the fact that only a few individuals are eager to disclose or affirm it, the issue of white dominance and power in the modern day is still unresolved. Whiteness tends to confine individuals into cages of fixed and difficult to transform individual and national identities. In such light, many Australian scholars in the modern day are pursuing the study of ‘Whiteness’ especially in the imperialistic setting.

According to several Australian scholars, the limitations of the American scholarly ventures into the issue of Whiteness are brought about by the fact that Americans only acknowledge the issues of forced servitude and immigration, but deliberately fail to demystify the role played by imperialism and the withdrawal of indigenous Americans from their territories by the British; according to these Australian scholars, the Americans have difficulties admitting that they were once colonies of Britain (Carey and McLisky, 2009).

Due to the fact that many purely white Australians perceive the presence of black or coloured half-castes as being detrimental to their living standard, for a long time there was an urgent need by Australia to keep its territories purely white, for inhabitancy by the Europeans. Migrants into the country, especially the coloured ones, were seen as bringing about a decline in the national well being of Australia. Schwarz (2012) asserts that from the diaries and journals kept by British immigrants into the Australian country, it is concluded that many of them harboured the feelings of disillusionment on their arrival to Australia.

Many of them had perceived the Australian nation as being very pure and clean in a manner similar to that of England but on arriving found the nation polluted by the presence of black immigrants and half-castes. Being its former colonial masters, the British systems and ideologies have played a significant role in shaping the Australian policies on preservation of whiteness. As a matter of fact, some of the coloured people like Maoris and Red Indians have been sidelined for years in the Great Britain and it would therefore not a come as a surprise if the same happened in Australia. It should however be noted that, as stated by Jupp (2007), it was never the intention of the British to incite racist attitudes in Australia.
2.0 Introduction
Whiteness or race in the history of Australia has been comprehended, evidenced and depicted in different manners through out the nation’s growth. Under the imperialism of the British, Australia is believed to have assigned a great significance to whiteness and its preservation to the extent that the policy of White Australia was incorporated into the constitution of the country immediately after it gained independence. It is indeed very astonishing how the racial systems that were formed in the colonial days, despite their disparaging nature in the past days, have managed to remain in existence to the modern day.

According to Schwarz (2012), Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on one of his voyages to Australia stated his commitment to ensuring that British ancestry and traditions continued to prevail in the nation. As such, he was reiterating the importance that many assigned to issues of blood and familial roots. In the year 1946, the pioneering minister in Australia’s department of migration was also put on record for stating that it was his wish that there be ten individuals from the United Kingdom to counter every single foreigner that came into Australia.

Lydon (2009) states that the Australian Aboriginal people make up roughly a quarter of the nation’s population; they mostly occupy the northern and south eastern parts of the country. Those who dwell in the southeast, commonly referred to as Koories have been by far the most affected victims of the process to make Australia a white man’s land. This is due to the numerous endeavours aimed at forcibly transforming their customs and way of life as well as being driven out of their habitations.
3.0 Race
The concept of ‘Whiteness’ in the formation of the Australian nation is directly linked to that of race. At every distinct stage in the historical formation of the Australian nation, there have existed different perceptions of what the term ‘white’ means. It is indeed true that race receives most, if not all, of the credit for the topographical and chronological Australia. The debates about race gained pre-eminence in the past days after European explorers discovered other species of human beings who looked different from themselves; this brought to task the assumption that all human beings had originated from the same family of man. Despite several attempts by both religion and science to explain race the issue still continues to brew mixed opinions and reactions even in the modern day.
4.0 White Australian Policy
The White Australian Policy was a collection of principles and guidelines that were aimed at restricting the influx of non-European immigrants into the newly formed Australian confederation. The perceived nationalism of Australia as well as competition for hire and service conflicts were some of the factor that led to the promulgation of the White Australian Policy in the year 1901. Apart from erecting frontiers for the entry of non- European immigrants into the Australian nation, this policy was also aimed at dispossessing and deportation of those classified as illegal migrants. Immediately after the attainment of independence, many Australian citizens were apprehensive of the continued influx of immigrants who were of non-European ancestry into the nation; according to them, this would adversely affect the defence and confederacy processes that were still very young in Australia.

Despite the fact that foreigners from other parts of Europe were put up with, emigrants of a British ancestry were encouraged so as to increase the young nation’s populace and solidify its sovereignty. The official in the federation association of the new country were convinced of the urgency of the need to ‘whiten’ Australia. The coloured and non- European people such as the Chinese and Pacific Islanders underwent a lot of prejudice and discrimination at the hands of the white Europeans. In the newly formed Australian nation, they were paid less wages in comparison to whites who did the same work.

The was also the practice of black-birding in which the coloured people were kidnapped and recruited into sugar plantations where they worked in forced servitude terms. Nevertheless, in the year 1975 the Racial Discrimination Act was passed that made unlawful racially biased techniques in the selection of migrants into the country.
5.0 History of Australia’s Colonization by Britain
As already stated, in order to understand the concept of race and ‘Whiteness’ in the Australian history it is fundamental to trace the process of its colonization by the British. According to Douglas et al (2009) one of the world incidents believed to have played a significant role in the shaping of Australia is the American Revolution that took place in the period lasting 1776-1781. At this time many of the European nations were still under the subjugation of the British; after the revolution, however, Britain was defeated by the American nation. In the year 1782 the Americans offered their assistance to the Irish people and this brought an end to British imperialism in Ireland. It should be noted that at this point in time, most of the British colonies were revolting and fighting for independence from their imperialists; the French, Spanish and Dutch people had formed an alliance through which they were causing a lot of trouble for the Britons.

According to Lydon (2009) the foundations on which the Australian country was formed are closely related to the Pacific theatre and the First World War in which the British were involved against the French From 1756-63. This war took place across most of the continents of the world from India, to the North of America and athwart Europe. After defeating and driving out the French people from India and Canada, the Britons successfully set up very strong economic structures and the city of London became the kingdom’s financial nucleus. Of great interest is the fact that these financial systems were not made up of Briton
s alone; a majority of the key economic operators were people from Greece and Deutschland who had moved into the cities of England and Holland during the 16th century. After establishing the financial systems the British then embarked on a series of expeditions especially in the areas around the Pacific and Atlantic regions; these expeditions were aimed at exploring the unknown areas so as to find raw materials for the British industries, search out the empires of adversaries such as the Spanish people as well as establishing new pedestal for the ground and navy armed forces of the Britons. In the year 1766 Captain Samuel Wallis was vested with the responsibility to explore the region known as ‘Terra Australis’ or ‘New Holland’. Several other expeditions followed this one and in the year 1768 Sir Joseph Banks was directed to plant the British flag on Terra Australis and claim it as part of Britain’s vast empire. In the events that followed the breaking free of the American colony from their British subjugators, Douglas et al (2009) assert that the Britons seemed to develop and heightened interest in the Pacific maybe to try and recover their losses at the Atlantic. Joseph Banks had on his earlier voyages declared Terra Australis unfit for human inhabitancy; nevertheless, in the late 18th century he began to lobby for the British government to establish a protectorate there.

In 1787, May 13th the first fleet made up of eleven vessels voyaged ahead of the French to Terra Australis at Botany Bay. Despite the fact that the Britons had established their authority on the Eastern Parts of Terra Australis, there were aware of the fact that Port Jackson on the Northern side was more advanced and they therefore wasted no time in sailing towards it despite the perils that voyaging in the present weather would expose the fleets and troops to. The fleets got to Port Jackson on January the 26th and immediately transformed its name to Sydney cove who was the home secretary between 1782 and 1783. By the time the French got to Terra Australis the British had already sent a part of his troop to take over the Norfolk Island and its naval bases; this brings to light the significance of Australia as a strategic locale.

From this newly acquired base in Terra Australis, Taddeo and Dvorak (2010) claim that the British had achieved what they had been dreaming of for decades; they were now in the best position to launch attacks on the protectorates of Spain as well as claim authority of the northern parts of America. With the South Wales corps which had been set up in Australia the British felt confident enough to face the Spanish, Dutch and Fresh armed forces if need be. From Australia it was also very easy to reach South Africa and India; journeys that previously took more than half a year were now covered in a period of approximately one month. The British also had the habit of transporting prisoners to Australia. In the period lasting between 1788 and 1868, approximately one hundred and sixty thousand detainees were transported to Australia with more than a quarter of this figure being political prisoners of Irish descent. This is probably the reason why a third of the populace in Australia has Irish ancestry (Pinder, 2011).
6.0 Aboriginal Identity and Half-Caste System

Carey and McLisky (2009) assert that there are diverse descriptions of the Aboriginal identity as well as the preservation and continuation of culture, especially the white culture. For many Australians who prided themselves in their ability to maintain racial purity the existence of half-caste was a constant reminder of the corruption of their pure race. Due to this fact, the individuals of mixed races, simply referred to as half-castes were rejected and discriminated upon by the purely white society. These pure whites, or ‘full bloods’ as they were also commonly referred to, vehemently refused to accept those of mixed races and considered them unfit to carry on the white culture.
Schwarz (2012) states that there are those whites in Australia who were, and still are, convinced of the fact that it is almost impossible for the purely white Australians to live a standard kind of life in with the existence of black or coloured emigrants. For these half-castes to be redeemed the practice of biological absorption was introduced. The pure whites ignored and even rebuffed the fact that the half-castes contained any drop of the Aboriginal blood or any aspect of the Aboriginal way of life. The biological absorption entailed the safeguarding of the whiteness of Australia through the assimilation of half-castes by the pure whites; with the passage of time, it was believed that all the colour and tint that polluted the white race would eventually be eradicated.

7.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the debate about the issue of race and its significance in the formation of Australian History continues to rage even in the modern day. This may be attributed to the fact that most of the current leadership in the country is still those that lived in the days when the White Australia Policy was in effect. It therefore becomes difficult for them to undergo a transformation of the attitudes and mindsets that they grew up inclined towards. To counter the adverse effects of racism in the nation of Australia, education becomes crucial. The objectives of the educational system as well as the content of the Australian curricula should be framed in a manner that supports reconciliation between the different races that co-exist in modern day Australia.

The non-aboriginal populace that has for a long time swam in the belief of their racial superiority supported by the policies of supremacy and control that had been in operation in Australia for a long time need to learn to accept the Aboriginal masses and appreciate them for their different contributions towards the common good of the Australian country. Despite the fact that such a suggestion is easier in theory than when applied in the everyday lives of those affected, Australians-with the support and guidance of their government and the national policies- should be able to entrench reconciliation into its social construct at both the personal and national levels. There should be a renewed commitment by all to reconcile the Aboriginals through the transformation of education, medical services, standards of living as well as self worth and esteem.

Australian Educational Curriculum

1.0 Introduction
A curriculum is a fundamental aspect in the educational processes of any nation. This is because there are certain functions that are fulfilled by an educational curriculum. The first role that a curriculum plays is that it elucidates the educational content that the learners should be presented with. In the Australian context, different educational subjects require that learners are exposed to different sets of knowledge and educational experiences so as to attain the set educational intents. The second function of a curriculum is that it makes cleat to the Australian educators the pedagogical techniques that are most suitable to be applied in the coaching of different types and classes of learners.
In addition to this, without a curriculum it would be quite complex to elucidate the purposes of the educational process and the benefits is has for those whom it affects. In Australia an effective curriculum will also depict the most favorable time to present learners with educational content. With inclination towards the Australian case, this paper will discuss the different definitions of a curriculum, the development of the Australian curriculum, curriculum models, structure of the Australian curriculum, Australian curriculum in relation to the needs of diverse 21st century learner’s and a comparison of Australian English curriculum to that of the US. This will be followed by a conclusion and a list of the references quoted in this paper.
2.0 Definition of Curriculum
The areas of concern that cloud the concept of curriculum are those that pertain to the fundamental premises of a nation’s educational systems. Many scholars have come up with different definitions of the term ‘curriculum’. According to Ross (2000, p. 8) a curriculum is said to connote the content that is to be learn in a classroom situation. On the other hand, Hirst and Peters (1970, p. 60) claim that a curriculum refers to the course of teaching and learning sets of procedures which are structured in a fashion that ensures all the involved parties, particularly the learners and teachers, meet the set educational objectives.

Such a definition implies that the curriculum is the driving force behind the entire educational process and that in the absence of curriculum educational processes would be inconsistent and disorganized. A curriculum is utilized to ensure that the set educational processes in any nation are not just achieved, but achieved in the most favorable contexts for the learners. Another definition of a curriculum as indicated by Daniel turner 1980 is that a curriculum is a premeditated and directed learning set of procedures and goals that are designed through a process of restructuring knowledge and life occurrences in learning institutions; such reconstructions are aimed at the personal and social development of the learner.

Mash (2004) agrees by stating that a curriculum is a composition of linked up life occurrences and plans which a learner undertakes in the supervision of educational experts. In the Australian national curriculum, the nature of knowledge in curriculum development includes the selection of appropriate educational content, the structuring of the selected subject matter in the different educational subjects, an elucidation of the pedagogical techniques to be applied in the learning process. There are certain factors that determine the manner in which the educational subject matter is selected and structured; these include the criteria, scope and sequence. Under sequence importance is assigned to the increased complexity of knowledge in different levels of education; criteria refers to the different levels of relevance and importance that is assigned to the curriculum subject matter while scope defines the quantity and depth of educational content presented to the learners.

3.0 Development of the Australian Curriculum and Curriculum models

As indicated by Brady and Kennedy (2010, p. 3), one of the most fundamental processes in the educational system of any nation, not just Australia, is the development of an effective curriculum; this is due to the fact that, more often than not, a curriculum is the manifestation of a people’s system of beliefs, life aspirations, values and mindsets. According to Sowell (2005) there are four level of curriculum development; the experiential, instructional (tutor, evaluate, feedback), institutional (founded in school) and societal level (determined by stakeholders). In the nation of Australia the process of Curriculum development is comprised of a certain set of fundamental procedures that need to be adhered to by the relevant curriculum developers and educational experts.

These processes include a definition of the nation’s educational philosophy, an elaboration of the intents and objectives of education, guidelines on the preferred pedagogical practices, an outline of the specific goals and results of the teaching-learning process as well as the selection of appropriate educational content and assessment of related tasks. The learning activities for different learners and at different levels of the learning process are also deliberated upon.

A well designed curriculum should be able to respond to the needs of the learner as well as those of the community. Marsh (2004) indicates that the greatest purpose of a curriculum is to cater for the diversity of learners through the processes of differentiation and inclusion. The society needs from an educational system include the need for literacy, acquisition of interpersonal and vocational skills, preservation of an accepted level of morality and social order, the passing on of the societal and cultural values from one generation to the next as well as the need for creativity and ingenuity. The learner’s needs include the need to develop their cognitive, psycho-social, linguistic, moral-affective and vocational abilities.

Curriculum models tend to be designed by the application of theories formulated to describe the process of teaching and learning and elucidate on the pedagogical methodologies and practices that are most suitable for learning; the curriculum models of Australia are designed in a manner that allows them to address the features as well as requirements of diverse groups of learners. According to Brady and Kennedy (2010, p. 161) there ate two main models for curriculum development in the Australian nation; these are the technical and descriptive models. The technical models refer to those that are concerned with an evaluation of the set of procedures adopted by curriculum developers as regards the educational content, pedagogy and assessment criteria.

As indicated by Tyler (1994) this model is founded on four main principles: The desired educational objectives, the necessary educational experiences that can achieve the educational objectives, the effective structuring of such experiences and tools to assess the extent to which the educational intents have been achieved. This method is a holistic approach to education which was formulated in post-war Australia to improve education and enable teachers to take their role more seriously; it was also at this time that the formative form of evaluation was adopted in the educational process. This technical model by Tyler (1994) is perceived as being more reflective of the actualities of curriculums.

The descriptive model on the other hand, focuses intently on the approaches of curriculum development; a descriptive curriculum can only be successfully applied when there is agreement by the educational stakeholders about the perspectives and possible solutions in education. The descriptive technique of curriculum development is based on three main stages: design, deliberation and platform. The platform stage acknowledges the diversity of mindsets and beliefs by the curriculum developers about the alterations and objectives of the curriculum; through deliberations, however, compromise is achieved by highlighting the shared values.

There are certain outcomes that are expected to emanate from the application of an effective curriculum; these include evidence of learning and noticeable internal transformations by the learners. According to Willis and Kissane (1997) outcome-based education refers to the demonstration of the expected educational outcomes by the learners; the main emphasis here is placed on what the learner has gained from the learning experience rather than what they were taught. Outcomes are developmental and they demonstrate the transformations in learners as observed from one educational stage to the other. In spite of this, in the Australian context the outcome-based education has lost its popularity in the recent days; this is due to the unpopularity of outcome-based assessment techniques which required justifications to be founded on the demonstrated educational outcomes.

In addition to this, many Australian parents were concerned that the levels indicated by outcome-based education were inconsistent with the normal educational grades (Willis, 1997, p. 12). While a curriculum defines the expected end results from an educational process, the educators determine the means; learning outcomes are thus perceived as distinct from the pedagogical techniques applied in teaching and learning. Brady and Kennedy (2007, p. 178) explain the Skilbeck’s situational analysis process which is applied in the evaluation of the developed curriculum in its operational context. This process is comprised of the internal, external considerations as well as five sets of procedures; these five steps include assessment of the situation, establishment of goals, structuring of the program, execution and the process of supervision, monitoring, evaluation, feedback and reform (Brady and Kennedy, 207, p. 178).

4.0 Structure of the Australian Curriculum
As indicated in the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website (2012), the Australian curriculum is responsible for outlining the foundational knowledge as well as skills and wide-ranging capacities that the Australian learners should be equipped with. The Australian curriculum was formulated based on the Melbourne Declaration of Educational Goals for Young Australians in December the year 2008. The goals of the Australian curriculum include: The promotion of excellence and equity in education, ensure all young Australian are knowledgeable, successful, self-assured and ingenuous. This curriculum is influenced by the 21st century needs of the learners, the Bill of Human Rights, multicultural education and Australian nationalistic principles.

The Australia curriculum has several elements that guide its application. It contains a rationale which describes the objective of learning in the school, curriculum. The aims of the curriculum illustrate the expected learning outcomes that learners should demonstrate. The curriculum’s organizational element is the depiction of the manner in which the curriculum is configured from the foundation stage to 12 years. In addition to this, the Australian curriculum has content descriptions which outline the content that educators are expected to present their learners with; there are elaborations included to make sure that teachers understand the content description clearly. A very important element of the Australian educational curriculum is the defined achievement standards that portray the anticipated eminence of learning by learners as well as examples of the levels of excellence already attained though a display of annotated work by learners.

While the general capabilities element refers to the skills and mannerisms in educational demonstration expected across the subjects, cross-curriculum priorities are those that ascertain the relevance of the Australian curriculum to its consumers. There are seven main general capabilities outlined in the Australian curriculum; these are literacy, numeracy, critical and creative thinking, capability in informational technology and informational technology, personal and social proficiency as well as intercultural understanding and ethical conduct. The cross-curriculum priorities of the Australian curriculum are sustainability, relationship between Australia and Asia and the cultural orientation of Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginals.

5.0 Australian Curriculum in relation to the needs of diverse 21st Century learners According to the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website (2012) the Australian curriculum is designed in a manner that makes it suitable to addressing the requirements and challenges placed on the modern day by the transformations and inconsistencies witnessed in the 21st century life realities. This is witnessed in the manner that the curriculum enables the Australian learners’ access to a base of life long scholarship and involvement in activities that affect them in the Australian society. Todd (2010) states that the Australian curriculum ensures that the different needs of the learners are adequately catered for by ensuring that the curriculum structure as well as the pedagogical techniques applied by teachers is fashioned to suit each learner’s educational needs. In addition to this, the Australian curriculum is sensitive to, and addresses the transformational nature in which learners gain knowledge.

6.0 Comparison of AC to local (state) and international Curriculum

As indicated by Webster (2007), there are more similarities than differences between the Australian and American English curriculum. These two curriculums are based on the strands of literacy, language and literature. These strands are aimed at enhancing the learner’s skills in creating, speaking, reading, writing and listening. The learning of English in America is based on certain parts of language: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, sub-systems of language, development of conversational skills and literature. As illustrated by Yager (2010), in Australia, as in America, the teaching of the English subject is inclined equipping learners with skills they need in the utilization of language for creating literature, expressing notions, interacting with others in different contexts and responding to literature. Important aspects of both curriculums are the emphasis placed on sound and letter knowledge as well as pronunciations and spellings.

7.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, a curriculum is a composition of linked up life occurrences and plans which a learner undertakes in the supervision of educational experts. The curriculum is a very important aspect of any nation’s educational process. As already indicated in this paper, the process of curriculum development is a very significant one in the educational process. There are four level of curriculum development; the experiential, instructional, institutional and societal level; the two main models for curriculum development in the Australian nation is the technical and descriptive models. The structure of the Australian curriculum is comprised of certain elements. As indicated by Webster (2007), there are more similarities than differences between the Australian and American English curriculum.

These two curriculums are based on the strands of literacy, language and literature. The Australian curriculum was formulated based on the Melbourne Declaration of Educational Goals for Young Australians in December the year 2008. The goals of the Australian curriculum include: The promotion of excellence and equity in education, ensure all young Australian are knowledgeable, successful, self-assured and ingenuous. This curriculum is influenced by the 21st century needs of the learners, the Bill of Human Rights, multicultural education and Australian nationalistic principles.

Hiding HIV/AIDS Status from Spouse: Culture of Australian Universities

Hiding HIV/AIDS Status from Spouse

In the contemporary day it is not uncommon for learners from different parts of the world to choose to pursue their degrees in other nations of the globe far from their homelands. There are a variety of reasons for this with the most common being immigration or the prestigious nature of the universities abroad in terms of academic excellence. Nevertheless, there are a variety of challenges that such students face, especially on their arrival at Australian universities, as regards settling and adapting to the culture of the Australian Universities. As is to be expected, many of these challenges are cultural or social oriented (Thompson et al, 2006, p. 2); despite the fact that many students in Australian universities adapt quite easily, there are those that encounter great difficulties.

This essay aims as evaluating the different challenges that an immigrant student in Australia face regarding their adaptation to the culture in the Australian Universities. Yue (n.d) asserts that as a consequence of globalization and industrialization there many international learners streaming in from Asian nations into Australia. These learners bring in extra income to the Australian nation as well as increasing the cultural diversification of the country. According to Sherry et al (2010, p. 33) the number of reasons as to why learners opt for international studies are not new.

In addition to interacting with people from different cultural orientations and gaining knowledge on new forms of behavior and thought, the international learners are also able to form new friendships while at the same time acting as ambassadors for their cultural orientations in their host country. Nevertheless, for such positive outcomes to emanate from the experience of international learning, the relevant higher education institutions ought to put in place effective measures to make sure that the integration of the immigrant learners will be as smooth as possible. Failure to do so causes the international learner to be confronted with a number of socio-cultural impediments which might adversely affect their academic pursuits. Sherry et al (2010, p. 34) conducted an investigative study in the university of Toledo in the US so as to ascertain the truth of these claims. This university is comprised of more than 16,000 learners with 1 out of every ten being an international student.

There were many challenges that were revealed from this study; the most pronounced were problems with the language of communication, homesickness, economic problems and cultural alienation. In addition to this, Griffin et al (2004) asserts that the international learners in Australia may also find the teaching and pedagogical methodologies that are applied in their new learning institution very queer to those they were used to in their homelands; this may cause a lot of ambiguity as well as conflicting anticipations between the international learner, their professors and fellow learners.

According to Sherry et al (2010, p. 33), the international learners may also find themselves confronted with issues of racism and ethnic discrimination. This is especially more common when the international learners in Australian Universities are overly different from the other learners as regards their speech and dressing mannerisms. Griffin et al (2004) are further convinced that a student’s emotions and psychological predisposition play a very important role in whether or not they benefit fully from the learning processes that they are exposed to.

As a consequence of this, any exposures to learning shocks can have very detrimental effects on the international student in an Australian University. Learning shock is the terminology used to refer to the bewilderment, worry and disappointment that many international learners face when they come to an institution of higher learning which has not put in place the necessary mechanisms to help them adapt to their new settings. Marshall and Gary (n.d, p. 26) claim that issue that is very pertinent in the international learner’s smooth integration into the culture of Australian Universities is the issue of plagiarism. Plagiarism refers to the use of an individual’s original material without giving them credit for it, and posing it as one’s own work; the material in question could be a movie, pieces of writings and even quotes.

The worrying issue is that in many Australian universities the student reported to be involved in many of the detected plagiarism cases are the international students, especially those of the non- English speaking backgrounds. Marshall and Gary (n.d, p. 27) further state that the lack of English proficiency for an international student at any Australian University can be a great impediment to their academic achievements as well as their social life in Australia. In addition to shortcomings in the language of communication, investigations conducted on NESB learners also revealed a number of other issues that interfere with the international learner’s propensity towards plagiarizing their school work.

One of the reasons is the fact that the international learner lacks an understanding of the ethical issues and aftermaths, especially academically, that are associated with plagiarism. In addition to this, the international learner, unlike the local one, has a financial weight that is imposed upon them to do well so as not to shame their families, many of whom make significant economic sacrifices so that the learner can get educational at an international level.

As depicted by Griffin et al (2004), there are a variety of techniques that the international learner in an Australian University can apply to get over any challenges that confront them in their efforts to fit in. One of these mechanisms is finding a close friend that they can confide in and discuss the different cultural shocks that they may be encountering. The second very helpful method is diversion; this refers to doing other things so as to avoid focusing too much on one’s problems. International learners in Australia cam make excursions to Australian parks and museums, watch television and even listen to Australian music; apart fro diverting their attention from any culture shock they may be experiencing, this will also enable them to get more in touch with the Australian culture.

In conclusion, this essay clearly depicts learning institutions, specifically universities, as having their own particular culture. International learners who come to study in Australian Universities have to learn to adapt to the universities’ culture if they are to benefit maximally from the educational processes that they are exposed to. Some of the challenges that international learners face include the pressure to perform well, lack of proficiency in the English language, discrimination due to their race and ethnicity, plagiarism in class work as well as isolation and culture shock. Sherry et al (2010, p. 44) claim that there are a variety of policies that the Australian universities can adopt to make sure international students integrate smoothly into the culture of Australian Universities. These include highlighting the profile of international learners through events such as International Students’ Week and incorporating more articles about international learners and their cultures in the universities’ magazines and newsletters.

Costco Down Under entre Australia

Costco Down Under entre Australia

Globalization has led to increased trade and business transactions across the world. Companies are seeking to develop their business practices and increase profitability by expanding their business operations to international markets. Establishment of international business calls for marketing across borders. There are two typical schools of thought concerning international marketing. The global standardization approach holds that the behavior of multinational companies should be uniform in order to promote a corporate image globally and minimize the costs (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 1998). On the other hand, adaptation approach argues that multinational companies should adjust to fit in the unique dimensions within each local market. The standardized international marketing mix comprises of product, place, price promotion, people, physical evidence and process management.

Some multinational companies might choose to apply this marketing mix and a single strategy to all countries regardless of the local conditions. This is due to the fact that the global market is increasingly becoming more similar hence the need for companies to standardize their operations. There is an increased interaction and sharing of information which leads to similarity among many companies.

Standardization is therefore seen as the best way for multinational companies to survive in the current competitive world. However, some may choose to alter the marketing mix as well as the strategies so that they can fit in distinctive dimensions of the local market (Jeannet and Hennessey, 2001). This group of companies articulate their position on the difficulties involved in applying a standardized approach to international marketing. They advocate for tailoring of the marketing mix to adapt to the local market. Companies have to make appropriate choices depending on the prevailing circumstances.

The global standardization approach is based on the belief that the needs and wants of consumers do not differ across countries and markets (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 1998). This approach holds that the world is continuously becoming more similar both in customer and environmental requirements. Consumers are believed to have the same demands regardless of their geographical location. Standardization of all the elements of a marketing mix and development of a single strategy for the whole global market is considered to be the best way of lowering costs. Standardization also increases consistency with the customers as the company will be able to provide similar services in all countries. Some of the well-managed multinational companies have shifted from customization of products to provision of globally standardized products which are reliable, advanced, low priced and functional.

The global company can operate with constancy at relatively lower costs as if the whole world is a single market. A company using this approach sells the same products in a similar manner across the world. However, there are many critics to the global standardization approach to international marketing. According to Lipman (1988), the current world is still characterized by differences in culture and other aspects of life hence marketing of a single product in a similar way across all the markets may scare away the customers, blind the company to customer needs and alienate employees. The adaptation approach is based on the view that an international marketer subjected to new macro-environmental factors, different constraints such as climate, topography, language, race occupations, tastes and education (Kanso and Kitchen, 2004).

An international marketer is also exposed to frequent conflicts that result from different cultures, societies and laws. People from different nations speak different languages and the rules and regulations vary from one country to the other. The cultural differences are the most difficult to deal with since they are deeply rooted in religion, history, values, education and attitudes. The adaptation approach holds that multinational companies have to find out ways of adjusting their marketing strategy to accommodate new market demands. The elements of the marketing mix and marketing strategies should be adjusted to meet special market needs and suit the local tastes.

A company that is entering into a new market can decide either to use a standardization strategy or and adaptation strategy. When a company uses a standardization approach, there are hardly any changes made on the product assortment, store design, promotional effort and service offering (Jain, 1989). On the other hand, a firm that uses an adaptation approach modifies the merchandise mix, store environment, promotions and service delivery to fit the local culture. A company that chooses to use a standardized strategy assumes that the consumers within other countries have similar preferences and tastes as those in the home country. These companies assume that consumers in the new country will respond in the same way to the promotional strategies being used. This approach enables the company to present a consistent and clear brand image across different markets.

Such companies are able to benefit from economies of scale that translates to increased profitability. However, a firm can adjust its products and services according to the local market by applying an adaptation strategy. This strategy enables the new entrant to take into consideration the tastes and preferences of local customers which may help the firm to capture the market share (Kanso and Kitchen, 2004). Costco Company, a membership warehouse club uses a standardized approach in its operations across seven countries (Sternquist, 2007.). The company only offers a limited assortment of products as compared to other competitors.

Costco`s warehouses are of standard size and design across all markets and merchandise is sold in bulk. However, the standardized strategy is not suitable for the Australian market. The retail market in Australia is characterized by great diversity in size of business, retail format, competition within sectors, nature of goods and region. The long-term business trends and current trading conditions are very challenging especially due to the entry of online retailing and innovative global retailers (Archarya & Elliot, 2001). The level of competition is very high within the country. Adaptation of a standardized approach may not work in Australia due to the diversified nature of the retail industry. Businesses in Australia vary according to regions and they offer a wide variety of products to meet different customer needs.

Australia consists of people from different backgrounds with various cultural believes and lifestyles. The needs, tastes and preferences of these people vary from one region to the other. This has led diversification of most companies to fit local cultures and meet the new demands. The retail format varies from one region to another and the level of competition is different in each sector of the industry. The Australian government has also implemented several regulations that restrict retailers in the country. The planning and zoning regulations are very complex and excessively prescriptive (Archarya & Elliot, 2001). The trading hours and workplace relations are also regulated by the government.

All companies operating in the country are expected to fully comply with the law. This greatly affects foreign companies as they are forced to realign their operations according to the government regulations. The standardized strategy adopted by Costco Company cannot apply in Australia as to company is required to comply with the local law. The planning and zoning regulations are likely to affect the typical warehouse design adopted by the company. The government controls construction and development activities across the country through strict laws. This will compel Costco Company to change its strategy to an adaptation approach that will enable it cope the new market. The company should also offer a wider variety of merchandise to satisfy the needs of many customers and increase sales. The level of competition in the Australian retail market is high and the consumers are diversified. Offering a wide variety of products will enable Costco to gain a competitive advantage by increasing profitability.

The main advantage of using Costco Company as an international channel of distribution is that the company has a strong brand name that is well recognized across the world (Sternquist, 2007). Costco is the fourth largest retail company in the United States and the eighth largest in the whole world. It has a total of 527 outlets operating in seven different countries. A wide branch network and strong brand recognition gives the company a competitive advantage globally making it suitable for distribution of wine. Costco is a profitable company that has been able to attain great profit margins. Using the company to distribute wine is likely to be more profitable if the profit-making trend continues. Costco has allocated the largest share of its stock to alcoholic beverages. 23 percent of the company`s assortment consists of alcoholic beverages making it the best company to distribute wine. Costco will be able distribute greater units of wine due to the larger share it has allocated to alcoholic beverages.

The company`s warehouses are designed to utilize the selling space and control shrinkage. The low levels of shrinkage minimizes loses and increases profitability. A standardized approach adopted by the company will ensure uniform services are provided in all market which increases customer loyalty and reduces costs. However, there are also some disadvantages of using Costco as an international channel of distribution. One of the main disadvantages is that the company only sells its merchandise in bulk as opposed to single items. That is major limiting factor as it locks out a great portion of the market. The largest share of the market is made up of consumers who buy single units. The company will deny the wine market a lot of customers by only selling the product in bulk. Offering a limited assortment of products is also a disadvantage because limits the company`s sales (Buzzell, 1968).

There are a wide variety of wines in the world and different consumers have different tastes and preferences. Using Costco Company to distribute wine will limit the brands to be exported since the company only offers a limited assortment of private and national branded merchandise. Costco is a new entrant in the Australian market with no market share. Using the company to distribute wine may not be very effective since the company is yet to capture the Australian market. This will prevent it from effectively distributing wine across the country and exporting the Australian wine. The standardized approach used by the company may prevent it from penetrating into certain regions of the country due to diversity.

KFC Australia

KFC Australia

KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken) Australia is a fast food restaurant that was started in 1968 by Bob Lapointe from Canada (Clark &Vemuri, 2008.pp 49-64). It is a member of Yum Restaurants International, a company which operates several restaurants across the world.The main objectives of KFC are to expand its business across the world and provide better and faster customer service. Its mission is to sell food in a fast, friendly environment that appeals to pride conscious, health minded consumers.(Market Line, 2012, pp 1-33) The main aim of fast food operations is usually to provide convenient and fast service to the customers. This essay gives a situation analysis of KFC Australian and its operations.

The first restaurant was opened at Guildford in Sydney, Australia in 1968. It tarted with small staff size of 25 employees on. The company currently has more than 600 outlets in Australia and New Zealand, some of them being franchised while others are owned by the company. The number of employees has increased from 25 to over 12000 in Australia and 3200 in New Zealand.(Market Line, 2012, pp 1-33)It has non-traditional units within shopping malls, airports, stadiums, amusement parks, office buildings, universities and mobile units. The company has built a strong employee loyalty by applying Colonel Sander`s laid back approach where employees enjoy pension and help in other non-income benefits.

KFC offers the best chicken meals and burgers across the country. The company buys the naturally grown chicken from reputable suppliers in Australia and they are prepared by the highly trained cooks. A mono-saturated type of fat called canola oil which originates from traditional canola crops grown by Australian farmers is used in cooking.(Howieson, 2011, pp3-13) The company uses the secret recipe for advertising and setting itself apart from the competitors.

It was the first company to start fast food operations thus gaining a strong brand recognition and good reputation. The customers have become sensitive on a balanced diet and they are demanding service in non-traditional places.KFC is continuously adding variety to the menu by introducing dessert and buffet to its restaurants which mainly offer fried foods.(Market Line, 2012, pp 1-33)It chanced is logo from Kentucky fried Chicken to KFC as a strategy of reversing its image which portrayed it as a fried chicken restaurant. KFC also serves lunch and dinner buffets to encourage customers to dine from their restaurants instead of taking the food away.

KFC offers both fried and non-fried chicken-on-the-bone products. They have special names for its products, such as; Kentucky grilled chicken and Extra Tasty Crispy. KFC also offer chicken sandwiches, Colonel`s Crispy Strips, Popcorn chicken, chunky chicken pot pie, and KFC Famous Bowls. Healthier products, such as; Honey BBQ, Rotisserie Chicken and Oriental wings besides the original fried chicken.(Clark &Vemuri, 2008.pp 49-64) These varieties of items are the strongest selling point. Biscuits, coleslaw, mashed potatoes and gravy and corn and potato wedges are available in KFC outlets.

KFC provides fast food services to a wide range of customers in convenient settings. Most of the stores are located within busy centres. Many people in Australia are engaged in employment and businesses with busy schedules.(Howieson, 2011, pp3-13) This has led to most families opting to take meals away from home due the limited time. As a result, fast foods have become the most convenient places for busy workers, travellers and families to take their meals. KFC is one of the leading providers of quality meals with many customers across the world. It has restaurants in most parts of the country and its services are standardized in every outlet to ensure consistence. The main focus of the company is to offer quality service that satisfies customer needs and provide comfort.

KFC provides nutritional information on its menu items to assist customers make informed choices about what they buy.(Market Line, 2012, pp 1-33) This information is updated on a regular basis according to the changes in the menu. Customers can access the information over the internet and on brochures available in all its restaurants. The company practices responsible advertising by not advertising during children`s programs. It also supports dietery choices for all categories of people at all ages. The company also gives health tips and the need to exercise.

KFC Australia had the highest profits as compared to other countries making it the largest international company.(Wilkie, 2007, pp 83-87) The company has adopted ways of increasing profitability by reducing overhead costs, increasing efficiencies and improving customer service. The restaurant also ensures cleaner restaurants, faster and friendlier service and continued high quality products. It has met the changing demands of the clients

The company is enjoying from the economies of scale due to the high number of restaurants operating. It is able to expand quickly at a lower cost through franchising and is capitalizing on the increased customer base by offering a wider menu.(Market Line, 2012, pp 1-33) Advertisement is done collectively thus reducing the overall cost. The company has launched the Facebook campaign with the main aim of drawing people to the restaurant which has suffered decline since 2007. This campaign was advertised in print media, TV and radio. People are engaged in contests and the winners are rewarded.

The fast food industry in Australia declined in 2011 and moderate growth is predicted to take place between 2012 and 2015.(Howieson, 2011, pp3-13) The market forecast indicates the growth will decelerate for a period of five years from 2011-2016. This is due to the overall reduction in the annual growth rate in the industry as compared to other countries like China and Japan. The Australian fast food industry reduced by 0.4% in the year 2011.

The level of competition is very high in Australia. The leading companies include; Domino`s Pizza, Hungry Jacks, McDonald’s and Burger kings. Most of the fast food restaurants have started offering new menu items. McDonald’s has introduced McChicken sandwich which is continuously gaining popularity.(Wilkie, 2007, pp 83-87) Domino`s has added chicken wings to its menu while Jack in the Box has introduced chicken and teriyaki with rice. On the other side, Pizza Hut has introduced marinated, rotisserie-cooked chicken.

Chain companies are focused on high volume by opening several branches through franchising while independent companies are either hiring more staff or extending the hours of operation.(Wilkie, 2007, pp 83-87)There is price competition between players in the fast food industry in an effort to lure customers. The greatest form of competition is through the brand names. A company such as MCDonalds spendsa lot of money in advertising their products to create a strong brand name. There is also indirect competition from close substitutes. The sale of frozen re-heatable food offers a cheaper option as compared to a fast food operation. The fast food is also said to be unhealthy due to many fried foods it offers, thus many people are buying from food retailers.